Professionalization With In Sports Coaching Physical Education Essay

Professionalization With In Sports Coaching Physical Education Essay According to Semotuik (1982) sport coaching goes back to the fourth century B.C to ancient Greece. It is evident that by the fifth century B.C coaching became more structured and organised, where the coaches were responsible in giving the athletes technical instruction, fitness and motivation leading up to festival participation (Semotuik, 1982).In ancient Greece sport coaching was recognised as a leading profession. At one point Greek maritime profession was criticised by the great philosopher Aristotle because it has been less well organised as a science compared to coaching athletes (Semotuik, 1982). In the days a coach was responsible in giving an athlete technique instructions, fitness and motivation to achieve excellence (Semotuik, 1982). This applies to modern day coaching, as Woodman, (1993) and Bompa, (1994) mentions that coaching is a process that aids athlete to achieve their peak performance in competition. However it is important to mention that modern day coaching has evolved into a more holistic approach where coaches consider the athlete as an emotional, cultural, political and a spiritual being (Cassidy et.al, 2004) compared to a more rigid approach where coaches were more fixed with the logic behind training that at some times they have neglected the well being of their athletes (Semotuik, 1982). Modern sport coaching began with the industrialisation and urbanisation that happened throughout UK in the 18th and 19th century and it can be divided to 3 main periods (Lyle, 2002). In the first period as McNab, (1990) points out coaching has developed from a more individual sport basis as coaching working class boxes and runners in the early 1800s through to the early coaches of largely team sports in public schools. Coaches of these team sports were teachers who were introduced to the team sports while they were at university (Lyle, 2002). In the second period participants were divided into amateurs and professionals. Amateurs were involved, for the love of the sport although competition was involved. The tension of amateurism and professionalism was spreading to clubs and NGBs in this time period. Although this conflict was evident throughout the world, due to the cultural background, amateurism was well highlighted in UK sport during this era (Lyle, 2002). Third period was the post war era. In this period most of the nations were egger to reinstall their national pride and used success in sport as a mean of achieving it (Lyle, 2002). Sport has been considered a way to entertain crowds in the ancient Greece (Semotuik, 1982). In the post war era it was used as a mean of showing the national identity in the international arena (Lyle, 2002) to modern day, though the recognition in the international arena is one of the key factors that is considered to thrive in sport, participation in sport has increased because, involvement in sport plays a major role in tackling obesity and psychological and physiological wellbeing of the nation (Sport Coach UK, 2008). UK Sport, (2001) has recognised the importance of coaching and recommended that the standards of coaching be elevated to those of a profession central to the development of sport and the fulfilment of individual potential. To achieve this UK coaching frame, (2006) was introduced and the goals were divided into 3 phases (building foundations 2006 2008, delivering the goals 2006 2012 and finally transforming the system 2006 2016) Sport Coach UK, (2008) sees professionalization process in sport coaching as a key element in the up-skilling of the coaching workforce and critical in the upkeep of the health of the nation and increase the degree and longevity of the participation in physical activity, as well as success when performing in the international arena. One of the strategic action areas identified by the UK Coaching Framework, (2006) is to recognise coaching as a professionally regulated vocation. Lyle, (2002) has identified the traits and characteristics of a sport coaching profession as having a professional education, a distinct and specialised body of knowledge, career structures and pathways, explicit ethical and value system, an independent professional membership body, professional practise and clarity and definition with their remit and role. Sport Coach UK, (2008) has used this as a base to improve the specific characteristics in the professionalization process. Coach education not only plays a major role in the process of professionalization but it is also mentioned that participants enjoy the sport and retention levels are high when participants are with a trained coach compared to a untrained coach (Tonsing, 2007). Mallett et al., (2009) places coach education in a continuum, formal coach education in one end of the spectrum and informal coach education in the other end and has placed non formal coach education in the middle of the continuum. Mallett et al., (2009) defines formal education as education with highly institutionalised, bureaucratic, syllabus driven and officially recognised with grades and qualifications. Non formal coaching education takes place when the coaches are either invited or on their own attend seminars, conferences and workshops to gain knowledge. In other words non formal education takes place when coaches attend willingly to structured courses not to gain qualifications but solely to widen their knowledge (Mallett et al., 2009). Evidence suggests that there is a greater impact in the learning process for coaches through informal education. Informal education can take place when the learner is in a practical environment and learns through their experience, trial and error (Mallett et al., 2009), working with more experienced coaches, reflection, and operating with a coaching community of practice (Roberts, 2010). Nash and Sproule, (2009) and Wright et al., (2007) points out how pre -coaching expe rience i.e. when coaches were competing as athletes act as informal coach education and help to develop expert coaches. For this reason although it is important to have a formal education as part of the professionalization process, by including non formal and informal education in the coach education programmes, maximum benefits can be harnessed in having effective coaches at all levels. Cushion et al., (2003) identifies coaching as highly complex and dynamic. Therefore Wright et al., (2007) points out the importance of incorporating a wide range of skills and knowledge in the formal education programmes. Since coaching is dynamic and complex, Gilbert and Trudel, (2004) argues that due to lack of broad formal training in highly planned environments in sports coaching compared to other professions such as teaching, coaches lack the knowledge of how they should frame their role. Primary function of a coach is to coordinate and integrate all of the coaching process (Lyle, 2002). Nash et al., (2008) mentions that the role that coaches fulfil is based on their experience, knowledge, values, opinions and beliefs but how the coaches frame their role and philosophy was not clear. Gilbert and Trudel, (2004) suggest that boundary components of a coachs role frame mainly includes whether the participants are recreational or competing and the age group of the participants. Lyle, (2002) further illustrates the importance of differentiating performance coaching from participation coaching because of the skills needed in both differs from one another. It is evident that a performance coach will need the skills and knowledge in all areas such as direct intervention, intervention support, Constraints management and strategic co-ordination however role of the participation coach is limited only to direct intervention and therefore does not need strategic and co-ordinating skills (Lyle, 2002). Also by differentiating the two, intra role conflicts can be avoided (Lyle, 2002). United Kingdom Coaching Certificate (UKCC) has acted upon these suggestions when structuring and delivering courses. National Governing Bodies such as Amateur Swimming Association has divided the courses in two different pathways, coaching and teaching aquatics. By doing this they intend to separate performance coaching from participation coaching and identify them as two separate carrier pathways. Although the level 1 is transferable throughout all the disciplines, teaching, coaching swimming, diving, synchronised swimming and water polo as the coach progresses towards higher levels course programmes are more specific to the roles. (ASA, 2010) Most of the coaching takes place for children between the ages of 6 to 16. This is a crucial time period because most of the social values and life skills such as fair play, respect for others, working with others, skill development, cooperation, decision making, leadership and moral development are some of the outcomes of participating in sports that provides a foundation for adult life. (McCallister et al., 2002). Therefore coaches have been encouraged to hold on to a coaching philosophy that not only values the brilliance in sport but also promotes athletes to develop as a balanced integrated individual as in general (Haney et al., 1998). It is important to highlight the coaches acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. As Lyle, (2002) elaborates how morality is a judgement based on right principles which can be effected by the roots in religious and moral philosophy and are guides to right or wrong behaviour. Sports Coach UK, (2005) lays out four key principles to reflect for good coaching practise, rights coaches must respect the rights of every individual to participate in sport, Relationships should base of openness, honesty, mutual trust and respect, responsibilities in personal standards coaches need to demonstrate proper personal behaviour, responsibilities in professional standards to minimise risks coaches should attain a high level of competence through qualifications and training that ensures safe and correct practise. Lyle, (2002), further discusses that ethics are a more sound set of principles formulated around behaviour in a particular activity. Therefore ethics studies focus more negative or inappropriate practise (Lyle, 2002). It is crucial to identify the values and ethics system if coaching is to recognise as a profession (Sports Coach UK, 2008). Lyle, (2002) identifies interpersonal relationships, power differentials, influencing outcomes or performance, social role and inappropriate goal setting as examples of ethical practise. Lyle, (2002) identifies professionalization of sport coaching not as an end result but as a process where it will be tested and compared to other professions throughout. Sports Coach UK, (2008) identifies some of the enablers and barriers to professionalization. Building on a culture of change where lot of funding through the national lottery. Also the establishment of UKCC can be seen as a huge enabler towards professionalising coaching. One of the commitment from UKCC to the National Governing Bodies is for the coach educators to have a minimum standard (Sports Coach UK, 2008). The 2012 factor can be seen as an enabler due to the fact that previously interest has been faded after a while but hosting the Olympic games will help to keep the interest within the government and the public (Sports Coach UK, 2008). Also coaching can be enhanced by the governments wider health policy where coaches work with other professions can be seen as an enabling factor along with having a professional body for coaching, championing the work of coaches and building on internal support from with the sports sector has been identified as enablers by Sports Coach UK, (2008). Sports Coach UK, (2008) points out some of the barriers that resists or slows down the professionalization process. Internal resistance from within sport is one of the main barriers that has been identified. Main reason for this is because of the culture and the unique history of the country. Within many sport organisations the ethos of mutual aid and volunteerism are core values also since the change is rapid, since most of the coaches are volunteers coach management systems and education schemes will be unsettling and problematic (Tayler, 2007). Also changes in government priorities can be seen as another key barrier towards professionalization. As Green, (2004) points out how the priorities has shifted within sport from mass participation in the mid 1990s to shifting priorities to raising the game at national level. Although it is evident that the in 2002 with the Game Plan publication, the focus has been widen to consider both aspects of participation and performance (Green, 2004). Although the alignment with 2012 Olympic games as being the target for the professionalization of the occupation, some of the changes that has happened throughout the years in changes in funding (Sport England, 2010) will make a impact to the process (Sports Coach UK, 2008). Transformation of a mainly volunteer based provision into one where most of the coaches are in fulltime paid work can be seen unrealistic, also Sports Coach UK, (2008) identifies fragmentation within the employment and deployment of coaches, lack of opportunities for employment and changes in the leisure and sport market can be viewed as barriers towards professionalization of sport coaching. In order to monitor and evaluate the process of professionalization in 2012 Sports Coach UK, (2008) has devised three scenarios gold, silver and bronze against the establishment of professional body, employment and deployment of coaches, establishment of coaching licence, development of market place for coaching services, establishment of high quality coach education and CPD and the perception of the coaching professional. Gold scenario is where all the characteristics have attained highest standards and bronze being the least achieved. Although it is good to evaluate the process since it is measured against 6 factors some of them can to high standard and some of them might achieve poor standards (Sports Coach UK, 2008). Although enablers towards professionalization is relatively strong due to the public interest because of the 2012 games and other enablers, the outcome of the scenario whether it is gold, silver or bronze will depend on how well the process can withstand the tensions of the governments changing policies and other barriers towards professionalization. Since most of the NGBs are with UKCC and some of the NGBs such as Amateur Swimming Association has already started licensing the existing work force it is evident that positive changes are taking place. When it comes to judging the progress in 2012 it will be important to consider who is going to judge the progress and what will be the progress beyond 2012 in attaining the worlds number one system. WORD COUNT 2320

Regional Interactions Essay

†¢ As in the previous chapter, this time period witnessed a tremendous growth in long-distance trade due to improvements in technology. Trade through the Silk Road, the Indian Ocean, the trans-Saharan trade route, and the Mediterranean Sea led to the spread of ideas, religions, and technology. During the period known as Pax Mongolia, when peace and order were established in Eurasia due to the vast Mongol Empire, trade and cultural interaction were at their height. †¢ Major technological developments such as the compass, improved shipbuilding technology, and gunpowder shaped the development of the world. AP EXPERT TIP When you are reading about a given situation, try to visualize where in the world those developments are taking place. Alternatively, reproduce a blank world map and take notes in the proper geographic region as you read. †¢ The movement of people greatly altered our world. Nomadic groups such as the Turks, Mongols, and Vikings, for instance, interacted with settled people—often because of their technology—leading to further change and development. One of the worst epidemic diseases in history, the bubonic plague (or Black Death), spread during this period due to the movement of people and their increased interaction. †¢ Religions such as Islam, Christianity, and Buddhism promoted the equality of all believers in the eyes of God. And though patriarchal values continued to dominate, the monastic life available in Buddhism and Christianity offered an alternative path for women. †¢ The spread of religion aided by the increase in trade often acted as a unifying force, though it sometimes caused conflict. Christianity and the Church served as the centralizing force in Western Europe, and throughout East Asia, the spread of Confucianism and Buddhism solidified a cultural  identity. The new religion of Islam created cultural world known as dar-al Islam, which transcended political boundaries. †¢ The political structures of many areas adapted and changed in response to the new conditions of the world. Centralized empires like the Byzantine, the Arab Caliphates, and the Tang and Song dynasties built on the successful models of the past, while decentralized areas (Western Europe and Japan) developed political organizations that more effectively dealt with their specific conditions. The movements of the Mongols altered much of Asia’s political structure for a time, and recovery from that Mongol period introduced political structures that defined many areas for centuries to follow. Look more:  asian foot binding essay POST-CLASSICAL CHINA Tang Dynasty (618 to 907 CE) POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT Following the fall of the Han dynasty, China returned to rule by regional small kingdoms for the next 400 years. It was not until 581 CE that the Sui dynasty emerged, using Buddhism and the Confucian civil service system to establish legitimacy. The Sui dynasty started the construction of the Grand Canal and launched numerous campaigns to expand the empire. Rebellions overthrew the Sui in 618. The Tang dynasty that followed was more focused on scholars than on soldiers. It did, however, expand its territory beyond China proper to Tibet and Korea. It also completed the Grand Canal and offered support to Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism. The capital, Changan, was a major political center, which foreign diplomats visited from the Byzantine and Arab worlds. In the middle of the eighth century CE, Tang power declined as higher taxes created tension within the population. Peasant rebellions led to more independent regional rule and to the abdication of the emperor. After this, there was a period of rule by regional warlords for the next 50 years. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT The dynasty established military garrisons, which allowed for the protection and security of Silk Road trade. An equal field system was established in which all peasants were given land in return for tax in grain and unpaid labor; at death they were to return the land to the government. Changan was a major trading center and cosmopolitan city. The West Market there flourished with Indian, Iranian, Syrian, and Arab traders and their goods. By 640 CE, its population reached 2 million, making it the largest city in the world. Neighbors, such as Japan or Siam, became tributary states to China. CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Culturally, the Tang dynasty was heavily influenced by the spread of Buddhism. Empress Wu started a school dedicated to Buddhist and Confucian scholarship and art. Toward the end of the dynasty, Buddhism, a â€Å"foreign religion,† was attacked for its economic and political power. From 841 to 845 CE, an anti-Buddhist campaign destroyed many monasteries. In the wake of this backlash, neo-Confucianism developed: Confucian scholars wanted a new form of Confucianism that would limit foreign influence. The result was an integration of Buddhist and Confucian ideas. Some ideas included individual self-improvement, the goodness of human beings, and the goal to strive and perfect oneself. Women’s marriages during the Tang dynasty were arranged within their own social class, but upper-class women could own property, move about in public, and even remarry. Poetry flourished with such poets as Li Bai and Du Fu. Song Dynasty (960 to 1279 CE) POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT By 960 CE, the Song dynasty had re-established centralized control over China. The civil service exam system retained great prominence, successfully checking the power of the aristocracy. The Song de-emphasized a military approach and instead re-established the tribute system with its nomad neighbors. This involved â€Å"paying off† the nomads with such gifts as bolts of silk to keep the peace. The Song, however, experienced military and economic problems. The scholar-controlled professional army was often ineffective,  and too much paper money in circulation caused inflation. By 1126 CE, they had lost the northern half of the empire to nomads. The Southern Song continued to flourish until 1274, but military threats continued, and finally the greatest of all northern groups invaded in the 1200s, absorbing the Song dynasty into the new Mongol Empire. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Rice production doubled due to new fast-ripening rice from Champa. Internal trade from the Yellow Sea and Grand Canal flourished due to the increased number of merchants and the growth in population. The capital of Kaifeng became a manufacturing center with its production of cannons, movable type printing, water-powered mills, looms, and high-quality porcelain. China had more per capita production than any other country in the world. Minted copper coins were used as money and eventually were replaced with paper currency. Officials collected taxes in cash—not goods—and letters of credit (known as flying cash) were used by merchants. The Southern Song established their capital at Hangzhou, and commerce soared. With their cotton sails and magnetic compasses, the Song had the most powerful navy in the world. As a result, the dynasty’s power shifted from the north to the south, and the Song became leaders in trade. Song goods made their way to Southeast Asia, India, Persia, and East Africa. CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT During the Song dynasty, women were entitled to keep their dowries and had access to jobs as merchants, but they also were subject to a practice called foot binding. The practice originated with the aristocratic class and was viewed as a sign of wealth and status. Girls as young as six had their feet bound in order to secure a better marriage. Tang and Song Innovations †¢ The first use of the compass to aid maritime navigation †¢ A water-powered clock, demonstrating facility in mechanical engineering †¢ The invention of gunpowder—first demonstrated during the late 1000s CE, the  explosive combination of sulfur and saltpeter would alter weapons technology forever and lead to the first cannons, rockets, and incendiary bombs. †¢ Philosophy—neo-Confucian thought delved into ancient texts and further codified traditional Chinese philosophy; it blended Confucianism with elements of Daoism and Buddhism. †¢ A printing press with movable type †¢ Stylized and symbolic landscape painting †¢ Paper money, letters of credit (flying cash) JAPAN (around 800 to 1200 CE) POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT Japan’s geography as a group of islands led to the development of small isolated, independent communities. Clan members cooperated with each other much like a large, extended family. By the 600s, the Yamato clan had religious and cultural influence over other clans and wanted to copy China’s model of empire building. Its leaders began to call themselves emperors of Japan. The Fujiwara clan, which dominated between the ninth and twelfth centuries CE, sent emissaries to China and modeled their capital, Nara, on Changan. They could not, however, successfully introduce a Chinese-style bureaucracy, and a strict hereditary hierarchy developed instead. During the Kamakura Shogunate (1185–1333 CE), the emperor and his court kept their capital in Kyoto, yet a military dictatorship existed, ruled by powerful landholding clans. A Japanese form of feudalism developed in which the Shogun—supreme general—controlled the centralized military government and divided the land into regional units based on military power. The regional military leaders were the daimyo, and the warriors who fought for them were the samurai. Over the centuries, the samurai military class developed a strict warrior code called bushido. The emperor remained in power throughout this period, but served only as a symbolic figurehead. Many Shoguns were overthrown but the emperor was not. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Japan was a predominantly agrarian society with a local artisan class of weavers, carpenters, and ironworkers. Trade and manufacturing developed more in the Kamakura Period, when it focused on markets in larger towns and foreign trade with Korea and China. Most people were peasants who worked on land that was owned by a lord or by Buddhist monasteries. Though their freedom was limited, peasants could keep what was left of their harvest after paying their tax quota. Those unable to pay their taxes became landless laborers known as genin and could be bought and sold with the land. CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Japan adopted many foreign ideas but remained culturally true to its own traditions. According to Shinto, the religion native to Japan, everything possesses a spirit, or kami. Natural forces and nature were awe-inspiring, and shrines were built to honor kami. The first ruler from the Yamato clan claimed descent from the supreme Shinto deity, the Sun Goddess. Japan was also strongly influenced by Korea and China. It adopted Chinese technology, Chinese script, and Buddhism (though Japan developed its own version of Buddhism, which added a strong aesthetic dimension, known as Zen Buddhism). In the Heian period (794 to 1185 CE), contact with China was cut off, and the culture turned to expressing Japanese values. Participating in a lavish court lifestyle, women dominated literature. The Tale of Genji, for instance, was written by Lady Murasaki. Wives inherited land from their husbands and often owned land, and priestesses dominated religious life. Over time, though, women lost power and influence. ISLAMIC CALIPHATES Islam: The Religion Prior to the spread of Islam, Arabs lived in separate, loyal, tribal groups and were often involved in overland and maritime trade. The city of Mecca later developed into an important religious site with a large influx of traders and pilgrims. The Kaaba, a black meteorite placed in the Great Mosque by Abraham, was in the center of the city, and most people  worshipped idols. Muhammad was born in 570 CE in Mecca. When he was 40, the angel Gabriel appeared to him and revealed that he had been selected to receive a divine message that there was only one all-powerful and all-knowing God, Allah, and that Muhammad was to be God’s messenger. Muhammad preached that all people were to submit to Allah and that everyone was equal in the eyes of Allah. Muhammad’s message was not met with enthusiasm in Mecca, and he fled to Medina in 622 CE, a journey known as the hegira. In Medina, he was viewed as a prophet and a political leader. Muhammad taught that he was the last of a long line of prophets from the Jewish and Christian scriptures that included Abraham, Moses, David, and Jesus. In 630 CE, he and his followers returned to Mecca, captured the city, and destroyed religious idols. After his death, Muhammad’s revelations were written down by his followers in the Quran. The word Islam means â€Å"submission to God’s will†. Islam is a universal religion that is open to everyone. Islam appealed to women because they had equal status to men before God, they could keep their dowries as wives, and there was a prohibition on female infanticide. POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT By the time of Muhammad’s death, almost all of Arabia was under Islamic control. There was disagreement, however, over his successor. One group, the Shia, believed that the leader should be a descendant of Muhammad. The other group, the Sunni, preferred the community of Muslims to determine who would succeed him. The leader of the Muslims, the caliph, was both a political and spiritual leader. Five Pillars of Islam 1. Statement of faith: There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger. 2. Pray five times a day facing Mecca. 3. Give alms (charity) to the poor. 4. Fast during the holy month of Ramadan. 5. Make a pilgrimage, or hajj, to Mecca during one’s lifetime if able. After the first four caliphs, the Umayyad clan took control in 661 CE and transformed the caliphate into a hereditary monarchy, with its government  centered in Damascus. They continued on to conquer Syria, Egypt, Persia, and Byzantine territory in West Asia, North Africa, and Spain. Their military skills, the soldiers’ commitment to Islam, and the promise of plunder helped them in these conquests. The Umayyad Caliphate set up a bureaucratic structure in which local administrators governed their areas. All cultures were tolerated as long as people obeyed the rules, paid their taxes, and did not revolt. Arabic became the language of administration, business, law, and trade. The Abbasid clan overthrew the Umayyad dynasty in 750 CE and moved the capital of the empire to Baghdad, a political center and the second largest city in the world next to Changan. Eventually, the only remaining Umayyad prince settled in Spain and established a separate caliphate there. Berber tribesmen controlled much of the northern African coast, and the Mamluks revolted and gained control over Egypt from 1250 to 1517 CE. The term Dar al-Islam, or â€Å"all under Islam,† refers to those areas in which a Muslim is welcome. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Trade flourished throughout the caliphate and improved irrigation led to productive agriculture and an increase in tax revenues. Artisans flourished in the cities, making pottery, fabrics, and rugs. Paper was imported from China, and soon paper mills were set up. The vast Islamic empires also spread many types of agriculture, including sugarcane, citrus fruits, and coffee. Islam spread to West Africa through trans-Saharan trade, to East Africa and Southeast Asia through Indian Ocean trade, to Central Asia and China along the Silk Road, and to India through the migrations of the Turks. CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Mosques, hospitals, schools, and orphanages were built throughout the empire. Intellectual achievements included the development of algebra, the concept of longitude and latitude, and the study of Greek philosophers such as Aristotle. The House of Wisdom, built in Baghdad in 830 CE, obtained Greek and Persian texts and translated them into Arabic. In art and architecture, the use of images was forbidden; instead, geometry and calligraphy were used to beautiful effect. Byzantine Empire (300 to 1453 CE) POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT The Byzantine Empire, a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire, was the only survivor from the classical age. The Roman Empire had officially been divided in 375 CE, with the western half severely weakened because the east produced the majority of grain and controlled the major trade routes. Emperor Justinian, who ruled from 527 to 565 CE, tried unsuccessfully to reconquer Western Rome. His Body of Civil Law (Justinian’s Code) was written, and he replaced Latin with Greek as the official language of the empire. The central government was a hereditary monarchy. It made law, had an efficient military, oversaw effective land distribution, and had a bureaucracy that answered to the emperor. The emperor was considered a co-ruler with Christ and appointed the patriarch. Military generals were appointed to rule, and free peasants were given land for military service. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Its location on the Mediterranean Sea contributed to strong trade in the Byzantine Empire. Silkworms were smuggled out of China, which allowed a Byzantine silk industry to develop. Artisans produced glassware, linen, jewelry, and gold and silver work. CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Most people spoke Greek. In theory, there was social mobility through the bureaucracy, army, trade, or service to the Church, but in reality, mobility was limited. Constantinople was the political and intellectual center, with libraries containing Greek, Latin, Persian, and Hebrew texts. The Byzantine and Roman Christian churches had been growing apart since the fall of Rome, and a disagreement over the worship of icons—images of saints—was the final straw. The Pope and the Patriarch excommunicated each other, and in 1054 CE, the church officially split into the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. This Eastern Orthodox form of Christianity later spread to the Slavic people and Russia. DECENTRALIZED STATES IN EUROPE Western Europe—Early Middle Ages (around 500 to 1000 CE) POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT Western Europe remained politically decentralized. The Franks came closest to re-establishing imperial control with the leadership of Clovis and, later, the Carolingian Empire of Charlemagne. Europe developed a feudal system in which land was given to vassals in exchange for military service, allowing them to gain power. The centralizing power during this period was the Church, and by the 13th century, the Church owned one-third of all the land in Europe. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT During this time, peasants became serfs; they had the right to work a portion of the land and could pass that right on to their children, but they could not leave the land. They could keep a portion of what they grew, but the majority of their earnings went to the lord. Serfs paid taxes for use of the lord’s mill, had to work on the lord’s lands, and had to provide gifts on holidays. These estates became large walled manors that were economically self-sufficient. They maintained mills, bakeries, and breweries. They had their own private armies served by armor-clad knights. The introduction of the heavy plow led to an increase in agricultural production. CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Beginning in the 12th century, the code of conduct called chivalry developed. It stressed honor, modesty, loyalty, and duty. Monasteries were the dominant feature of social and cultural life, and they often had large landholdings. Monks preserved classical knowledge by hand-copying great literature and philosophical works. NOMADIC CULTURES Vikings (Dates of Influence—around 800 to 1100 CE) The Vikings were a nomadic group who had settled in present day Scandinavia.  In order to supplement their farm production, they conducted seasonal raids into Europe and ransacked towns. Using small and maneuverable boats, they terrorized coastal communities in France, Scotland, Ireland, and England. The Vikings eventually evolved from plunderers into traders and established communities in Scotland, northern France, and Eastern Europe. Scandinavia was gradually Christianized during this period. These outstanding seafarers also traded actively throughout the North Sea and Baltic Sea. In the 800s, they colonized Iceland and Greenland, and around 1000 CE, they established a colony that lasted only a few decades in Newfoundland, modern Canada. The transplanted Viking settlements in France became known as Normans (or â€Å"Northmen†). In 1066 CE, a Norman lord named William from northern France invaded England with his army. He defeated the Saxons and established Norman power in what is now Britain. Turks (Dates of Influence—around 1000 to 1450 CE) The Turks, a pastoral nomadic group from the central Asian steppes, began gradually to migrate out of the steppes at the end of the first millennium. They were often hired by Muslim leaders as mercenaries, or hired soldiers. The Seljuk Turks, who had converted to Islam, invaded Abbasid territory and captured Baghdad in 1055. The caliph was left as the spiritual authority of the empire, but the Seljuk Sultan became the secular monarch. By 1071 CE, they defeated the Byzantine Empire and took most of Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). The Afghan Turks were nomads from Afghanistan and began a series of raids into India in the 10th century. They looted cities for gold and jewels and destroyed Hindu temples and then left. It wasn’t until the 12th century that they invaded and then started to govern. This started the Delhi Sultanate, which ruled northern India from 1206 to 1526 CE. These Turks introduced a strong Muslim presence in India. Mongols (Dates of Influence—around 1200 to 1550 CE) A second pastoral nomadic group from the central Asian steppes, the Mongols would go on to create the world’s largest empire. These nomadic herders’ lives revolved around their sheep, goats, and yaks for food, clothing, and  shelter; their camels for transportation; and their horses for mobility. This clan-based society was organized around bloodlines. Genghis Khan successfully united the various Mongol tribes, and their greatest strength was their mobility and military power. Once united, Genghis led his troops into Central Asia, Tibet, northern China, and Persia. In 1215 CE, the Mongols attacked and destroyed present-day Beijing. The Mongol charge continued into Afghanistan and Persia, yet by 1227 CE, the Great Khan died, and his empire was divided amongst his four sons. CHINA: THE YUAN DYNASTY In 1276 CE, Genghis Khan’s grandson, Kublai Khan, defeated the Southern Song dynasty, and for the first time, China was under foreign rule. Khan created a Chinese-style dynasty, adopting the Chinese name Yuan for it, with a fixed and regular tax payment system and a strong central government. Foreigners, not Chinese, were employed in the bureaucracy, and the civil service exam was not used. The Chinese were subject to different laws and were separated from the Mongols. Connecting Beijing to Vienna was a communication system using horse relays and 1,400 postal stations. In time, overland and maritime trade flourished, and though the Mongols were not directly involved in the trade, they welcomed merchants and foreigners. Merchants converted their foreign currency to paper money when they crossed into China. MIDDLE EAST: THE ILKHANATES In 1258 CE, Kublai’s brother, Hulegu, defeated the Abbasid Caliphate. The Mongols in the Middle East employed local bureaucrats in the government and converted to Islam by 1295 CE. The local rulers were permitted to rule, as long as they delivered the tax revenue and maintained order. Though they did not support agriculture, they did facilitate trade, and Mongol culture often mixed with that of the conquered people. As the Mongols continued west, they met with their first and only major defeat. The armies of the Mamluks, a slave dynasty in Egypt, defeated the Mongols in 1260 CE and stopped the movement of the Mongols in that region. RUSSIA: THE GOLDEN HORDE The Mongol ruler Batu conquered and ruled Russia but kept a large number of the local rulers in power. The taxes on the peasants were heavy, but they were collected by Russian bureaucrats. Trade was supported, and although these Mongols were Muslim and conversion was encouraged, Christian missionaries were allowed to visit. PAX MONGOLIA At the peak of Mongolian power, with huge areas of Asia and Europe under one rule, there was a period called the Mongol Peace. For about a century, Mongol rule united two continents and allowed for relatively safe trade and contacts between very different cultures. It did so by eliminating tariffs. During this period, the Silk Road trade reached its greatest height. Paper money—a Chinese innovation—was used in many parts of the empire. It was also common for the Mongols to convert to or adopt the local religions, or at least be religiously tolerant. MONGOL DECLINE In 1274 and 1281 CE, the Mongols tried again to expand their empire—they invaded Japan. Typhoon winds destroyed their fleet both times, however. The Japanese believed these â€Å"kamikaze,† or â€Å"sacred winds,† had protected them. Despite great military accomplishment, the Mongol Empire lasted hardly three or four generations. While the Mongols were successful conquerors, they were poor administrators. Overspending led to inflation in different corners of the empire, and after the death of Kublai, leadership was weak and ineffectual. Rivalry among the successors of the great Khan further destabilized the empire, and the vast domain was divided among various generals. By 1350 CE, most of the Mongols’ huge territory had been reconquered by other armies. RESULTS OF MIGRATION AND COMMUNICATION West African Kingdoms The introduction of the domesticated camel allowed for an increased flow of trade across the Sahara Desert, and as a result, Muslim and North African merchants began to establish commercial relations with West Africa. Ghana (around 500 to 1200 CE) Ghana was a regional state around the 400s or 500s CE, and an increase in trans-Saharan trade led to its growth in power and influence. By 800 CE the many farming villages in the area were united to create the kingdom of Ghana. It became an important commercial site and a center for trade in gold from the south, which it controlled and taxed. In return, it received ivory, slaves, horses, cloth, and salt. As Ghana’s wealth increased, it built an army funded by the tax on trade. In the 900s CE, the kings converted to Islam, which led to improved relations with Muslim merchants. Islam was not forced on the people, however, and traditional animistic beliefs continued to be important. Those who engaged in trade often converted to Islam. After 1000 CE, Ghana found itself under assault from northern Berbers and other tribal groups nearby. It was eventually absorbed by the West African kingdom of Mali. Mali (1235 to late 1400s CE) The trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt continued to increase. Mali controlled and taxed all trade. The rulers honored Islam and provided protection and lodging for merchants. The Sundiata is an epic poem that tells how the first Mali emperor came to power; it was composed and recited by Mali griots or storytellers. The most famous Mali emperor was Mansa Musa, who ruled from 1312 to 1337. He built libraries, Islamic schools, and mosques throughout the kingdom. Timbuktu was the political capital and a regional cultural center of Islamic studies and art for all of West Africa. After 1350 CE, provinces began to assert their independence.

An Honest Perspective on Sample Essay Topics for Primary School Students

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Biography of Elizabeth Woodville, Queen of England

Elizabeth Woodville (1437–June 7 or 8, 1492, and known variously as Lady Grey, Elizabeth Grey, and Elizabeth Wydevill) was the commoner wife of Edward IV, who had a key  role in the War of the Roses and in the succession battle between the Plantagenets and Tudors. She is best known today as a character in Shakespeares  Richard III  (as Queen Elizabeth) and the title character in the 2013 television series  The White Queen. Fast Facts: Elizabeth Woodville Known For: A commoner who was destined to become wife of Edward IV, mother of Edward V, sister-in-law of Richard III, mother-in-law of Henry VII and grandmother of Henry VIIIBorn: About 1837 in Grafton, rural NorthamptonshireParents: Jacquetta, Duchess of Bedford and Sir Richard WoodvilleDied: June 7 or 8, 1492.Spouse(s): Sir John Grey (ca. 1450–1461); Edward IV (1464–1483)Children: Two with John Grey (Thomas Grey (Marquess of Dorset) and Richard Grey) and 10 with Edward IV (Elizabeth of York who married Henry VII; Mary; Cecily; Edward V; Margaret; Richard; Anne who married Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey); George; Catherine who married William Courtney, Earl of Devon; and Bridget. The two princes in the tower were Richard and Edward V Early Life Elizabeth Woodville was probably born at Grafton in rural Northamptonshire, England, about 1437, the eldest of the 12 children of Richard Woodville and Jacquetta de Luxembourg. Elizabeths mother Jacquetta was the daughter of a Count  and a descendant of Simon de Montfort and his wife Eleanor, the daughter of Englands King John. Jacquetta was the wealthy and childless widow of the Duke of Bedford, brother of Henry V, when she married Sir Richard Woodville. Her sister-in-law Catherine of Valois also married a man of lower station after she was widowed. Two generations later,  Catherines grandson Henry Tudor married Jacquettas granddaughter, Elizabeth of York. Jacquettas second husband and Elizabeths father was the less highborn county knight Sir Richard Woodville. At the age of 7, Elizabeth was sent to another landed household (a custom of the period was to trade children so that they would have social contacts in the future), probably Sir Edward Grey and his wife Elizabeth, Lady Ferrers. There, she had formal lessons in reading, writing (in English, French, and Latin), and a grounding in law and mathematics. The Woodville family was wealthy when Elizabeth was born, but as the Hundred Years War wound down and the Wars of the Roses conflict began, the familys finances became straitened, and as a result, Elizabeth married John Grey (7th Baron Ferrers of Groby) in 1452 when she was about 14 years of age. The recently knighted Grey was killed at the Second Battle of St. Albans in 1461, fighting for the Lancastrian side in the Wars of the Roses. Elizabeth petitioned Lord Hastings, Edwards uncle, in a controversy over land with her mother-in-law. She arranged a marriage between one of her sons and one of Hastings daughters. Ancestry Eleanor of Aquitaine, mother of King John of England, was the 8th great grandmother of Elizabeth Woodville through her mother Jacquetta.  Her husband Edward IV and son-in-law Henry VII were, of course, also descendants of Eleanor of Aquitaine. Elizabeth Woodville   Jacquetta of Luxembourg   Margherita del Balzo Sueva Orsini Nicola Orsini Roberto Orsini Anastasia de Montfort Guy de Montfort Eleanor Plantagenet John of England Eleanor of Aquitaine Meeting and Marriage with Edward IV How Elizabeth met Edward is not known for certain, though an early legend has her petitioning him by waiting with her sons beneath an oak tree. Another story circulated that she was a sorceress who bewitched him, but she may have simply known him from court. Legend has her giving Edward, a known womanizer, an ultimatum that they had to be married or she would not submit to his advances. On May 1, 1464, Elizabeth and Edward married secretly. Edwards mother, Cecily Neville, Duchess of York, and Cecilys nephew, the Earl of Warwick who had been an ally of Edward IV in winning the crown, had been arranging a suitable marriage for Edward with the French king. When Warwick found out about Edwards marriage to Elizabeth Woodville, Warwick turned against Edward and helped restore Henry VI briefly to power. Warwick was killed in battle as were Henry and his son, and Edward returned to power. Elizabeth Woodville was crowned Queen in Westminster Abbey on May 26, 1465; both of her parents were present for the ceremony. Elizabeth and Edward had three sons and six daughters—Elizabeth of York who married Henry VII; Mary; Cecily; Edward V, briefly King of England (not crowned); Margaret; Richard, Duke of York; Anne who married Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey; George, Duke of Bedford; Catherine who married William Courtney, Earl of Devon; and Bridget. Elizabeth also had two sons by her first husband—Thomas Grey, the Marquis of Dorset and Richard Grey. One was an ancestor of the ill-fated Lady Jane Grey. Family Ambitions Her extensive and, by all accounts, ambitious family was favored heavily after Edward took the throne. Her eldest son from her first marriage, Thomas Grey, was created Marquis Dorset in 1475. Elizabeth promoted the fortunes and advancement of her relatives, even at the cost of her popularity with the nobles. In one of the most scandalous incidents, Elizabeth may have been behind the marriage of her brother, 19 years old, to the widowed  Katherine Neville,  the wealthy Duchess of Norfolk, 80 years old. But the grasping reputation was enhanced—or created—first  by Warwick in 1469 and later by Richard III, who had their  own reasons for wanting Elizabeths and her familys reputations to be diminished. Among her other activities, Elizabeth continued her predecessors support of Queens College. Widowhood When Edward IV died suddenly on April 9, 1483, Elizabeths fortunes abruptly changed. Her husbands brother Richard of Gloucester was appointed Lord Protector since Edwards eldest son Edward V  was a minor. Richard moved quickly to seize power, claiming—apparently with the support of his mother Cecily Neville—that the children of Elizabeth and Edward were illegitimate because Edward had been previously formally betrothed to someone else. Elizabeths brother-in-law Richard took the throne as Richard III, imprisoning Edward V (never crowned) and then his younger brother, Richard. Elizabeth took sanctuary. Richard III then demanded that Elizabeth also turn over custody of her daughters, and she complied. Richard attempted to marry first his son, then himself, to Edward and Elizabeths oldest daughter, known as Elizabeth of York, hoping to make his claim to the throne more solid. Elizabeths sons by John Grey joined in the battle to overthrow Richard. One son, Richard Grey,  was beheaded by King Richards  forces; Thomas joined Henry Tudors forces. Mother of a Queen After Henry Tudor defeated Richard III at Bosworth Field and was crowned Henry VII, he married Elizabeth of York—a marriage arranged with the support of Elizabeth Woodville and also of Henrys mother, Margaret Beaufort. The marriage took place in January 1486, uniting the factions at the end of the Wars of the Roses  and making the claim to the throne more certain for the heirs of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Princes in the Tower The fate of the two sons of Elizabeth Woodville and Edward IV, the Princes in the Tower, is not certain. That Richard imprisoned them in the Tower is known. That Elizabeth worked to arrange the marriage of her daughter to Henry Tudor may mean that she knew, or at least suspected, that the princes were already dead. Richard III is generally believed to have been responsible for removing the possible claimants to the throne, but some theorize that Henry VII was responsible. Some have even suggested Elizabeth Woodville was complicit. Henry VII re-proclaimed the legitimacy of the marriage of Elizabeth Woodville and Edward IV. Elizabeth was the godmother of the first child of Henry VII and her daughter Elizabeth, Arthur. Death and Legacy In 1487, Elizabeth Woodville was suspected of plotting against Henry VII, her son-in-law, and her dowry was seized and she was sent to Bermondsey Abbey. She died there on June 8 or 9, 1492. She was buried in St. Georges Chapel in Windsor Castle near her husband. In 1503, James Tyrell was executed for the deaths of the two princes, sons of Edward IV, and the claim was that Richard III was responsible. Some later historians have pointed their fingers at Henry VI instead. The truth is that there is not any sure evidence of when, where, or by what hands the princes died. In Fiction Elizabeth Woodvilles life has lent itself to many fictional depictions, though not often as the main character.  She is, however, the main character in the British series, The White Queen. Elizabeth Woodville is Queen Elizabeth in Shakespeares Richard III. She and Richard are depicted as bitter enemies, and  Margaret  curses Elizabeth with having her husband and children killed, as Margarets husband and son were killed by Elizabeths husbands supporters. Richard is able to charm Elizabeth into turning over her son and agreeing to his marriage to her daughter. Sources Baldwin, David. Elizabeth Woodville: Mother of the Princes in the Tower. Gloucestershire: The History Press (2002).  Print.Okerlund, Arlene N. Elizabeth of York: Queenship and Power. New York: Palgrave Macmillan (2009). Print.